Absence of kin discrimination in cannibalistic Anuran tadpoles of the frog Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (Daudin).

Kin discrimination was tested in the cannibalistic H. tigerinus tadpoles to know whether cannibalism is selectively directed towards non-kin members or it is indiscriminate. The association choice tests were conducted using satiated as well as starved subjects with the assumption that they will associate near non-sibs rather than near sibs with the intention of preferentially cannibalizing them. However, test tadpoles, fed or starved showed a random association choice with sibs and non-sibs, as in the end-bias stimulus blank tests. Therefore it is suggested that cannibalistic H. tigerinus tadpoles do not discriminate sibs from non-sibs and cannibalize on both rather indiscriminately.

Association preference and mechanism of kin recognition in tadpoles of the toad Bufo melanostictus.

In experiments with specially designed choice tanks, tadpoles of Bufo melanostictus spend signifi cantly greater amounts of time near kin than near non-kin. However, in the absence of kin members, they prefer to spend more time near non-kin rather than stay away in isolation in the opposite blank zone with no company. This implies that association of toad tadpoles with their kin is due to attraction rather than repulsion from non-kin. Experiments designed to elucidate the sensory basis of kin recognition showed that toad tadpoles recognize their kin based on chemical cues rather than visual cues. They can also discriminate between homospecifi c non-kin and heterospecifi c (Sphaerotheca breviceps) tadpoles since the tadpoles spent signifi cantly greater amounts of time near the former than near the latter. These fi ndings suggest that where kin members are unavailable, selection may have favoured living with non-kin so as to derive benefi ts from group living and that a phenotype-matching mechanism may operate for both kin and species discrimination in B. melanostictus.

Foraging behaviour in tadpoles of the bronze frog Rana temporalis: experimental evidence for the ideal free distribution.

The ability of bronze frog Rana temporalis tadpoles (pure or mixed parental lines) to assess the profitability of food habitats and distribute themselves accordingly was tested experimentally using a rectangular choice tank with a non- continuous input design. Food (boiled spinach) was placed at two opposite ends of the choice tank in a desired ratio (1 : 1, 1 : 2 or 1 : 4) to create habitat A and B. The tadpoles in Gosner stage 28-33, pre-starved for 24 h, were introduced in an open ended mesh cylinder placed in the center of the choice tank, held for 4 min (for acclimation) and then released to allow free movement and habitat selection. The number of tadpoles foraging at each habitat was recorded at 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 min time intervals. The actual suitability, Si (the food available in a habitat after colonization of tadpoles) of each habitat was obtained from the equation Si = Bi - fi (di) where Bi is basic suitability (amount of food provided at each habitat before release of tadpoles), fi is the rate of depletion of food (lowering effect) with introduction of each tadpole, and di is the density of tadpoles in habitat i. The expected number of tadpoles at each habitat was derived from the actual suitability. With no food in the choice tank, movement of the tadpoles in the test arena was random indicating no bias towards any end of the choice tank or the procedure. In tests with a 1 : 1 food ratio, the observed ratio of tadpoles (11.71 : 12.28) was comparable with the expected 12 : 12 ratio. The observed number of tadpoles in the habitats with a 1 : 2 food ratio was 8.71 : 15.29 and 7.87 : 16.13 for pure and mixed parental lines respectively. In both cases, the observed ratios were close to the expected values (7 : 17). Likewise, in experiments with a 1 : 4 food ratio, the observed number of tadpoles in the two habitats (10.78 : 37.22) did not differ significantly from the expected ratio of 7 : 41. In all tests, the number of R. temporalis tadpoles matched ideally with habitat profitability (undermatching index K approximate, equals 1). The study shows that tadpoles of the bronze frog exhibit an ideal free distribution while foraging regardless of whether they are siblings or non-siblings in a group, which correlates well with their group living strategy in nature

Factors influencing offspring traits in the oviparous multi-clutched lizard, Calotes versicolor (Agamidae).

The determinants of offspring size and number in the tropical oviparous multi-clutched lizard, Calotes versicolor, were examined using both univariate and multivariate (path) analyses. In C. versicolor maternal snout-vent length (SVL) and body condition influence clutch mass and clutch size but have no significant influence on offspring size. The positive effect of maternal SVL and body condition on offspring number is counterbalanced by a negative effect of breeding time on egg mass. In fact, breeding time directly influences the offspring body mass and condition through variation in the egg mass. There is a trade-off between offspring mass and condition with offspring number, and breeding time influences both. Offspring hatched from the eggs of early (May-June) or mid (July-August) breeding periods invariably show lower mass and condition than those hatched from the eggs of late breeding season (September-October). Yet, there is no variation in offspring SVL among early, mid and late clutches. Thus, in C. versicolor offspring SVL is optimized while body mass and condition are not optimized.